[66] Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus. Revised on November 11, 2022. Primary sources are "first-hand" information, sources as close as possible to the origin of the information or idea under study. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. [31] Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing the Numidian king. In the sciences and social sciences, primary sources or 'primary research' are original research experiments, studies, or . Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. [126] Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. Marius arranged for Sulla to lift the iustitium and allow Sulpicius to bring proposals; Sulla, in a "desperately weak position [received] little in return[,] perhaps no more than a promise that Sulla's life would be safe". "[156], He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. [155] Plutarch notes that Sulla considered that "his golden head of hair gave him a singular appearance. Finally, Sulla revoked the power of the tribunes to veto acts of the Senate, although he left intact the tribunes' power to protect individual Roman citizens. Secondary sources are interpretations of history. Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. [24] Keaveney 2005, pp. [122] Marius, buttressed by Samnite support, fought a long and hard battle with Sulla at Sacriportus that resulted in defeat when five of his cohorts defected. The Roman Republic and territories in 100 B.C. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. [130], In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a series of proscriptions (a program of executing and confiscating the property of those whom he perceived as enemies of the state). The interest rates were also to be agreed between both parties at the time that the loan was made, and should stand for the whole term of the debt, without further increase. The Mithridatic War (88 - 85 BC) [104] When the Pontic cavalry attacked to interrupt the earthworks, the Romans almost broke; Sulla personally rallied his men on foot and stabilised the area. This led him to a secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, in which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. [96] Rome unsuccessfully defended Delos from an joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. Primary sources are the evidence of history, original records or objects created by participants or observers at the time historical . [54] Various proposals to give the allies Roman citizenship over the decades had failed for various reasons, just as the allies also "became progressively more aware of the need to cease to be subjects and to share in the exercise of imperial power" by acquiring that citizenship. National Library Services to Schools has developed a suite of primary source analysis tools specifically for Aotearoa New Zealand schools. When he was still a proconsul in 82, he planned and executed the proscriptions against his enemies for revenge, especially from the Marian camp, and against rich Romans because he needed money to pay his veterans . The later battle, at Orchomenus, was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. [40] But Catulus' army was defeated in the eastern Alps and withdrew from Venetia and thence to the southern side of the river Po. To this end, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for 10 years before being re-elected to any office. Sulla's career is recounted in detail in Howard Hayes Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. Historical documents : how to read them. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . Roman military leaders. The first of the leges Corneliae concerned the interest rates, and stipulated that all debtors were to pay simple interest only, rather than the common compound interest that so easily bankrupted the debtors. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. Sulla, meanwhile, had to allow matters to unfold beyond his control. onwards. . [citation needed], Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus, on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). [73] The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. Cinna violently quarrelled with his co-consul, Gnaeus Octavius. Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. A primary source (also called original . sulla primary sources. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. He had close connections to the imperial family and was the husband of Antonia, Claudius's daughter, and might thus have been seen as a threat to Nero. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. The two armies then crossed the Po and attacked the Cimbri. [113], Sulla crossed the Adriatic for Brundisium in spring of 83BC with five legions of Mithridatic veterans, capturing Brundisium without a fight. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that he retired to a life spent in dissolute luxuries, and he "consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long." His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix in 52 AD (he was the son of the consul of 31, and the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius). Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . Primary sources enable students to explore the documentary evidence of a nation's history - the roots of its government, value systems and role on the world stage. Weekly Newspaper Articles as Primary Sources. the execution of Granius, shortly before his own death). [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. The collection currently contains . The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. However, despite this portrayal, particularly from Plutarch's accounts, it is difficult to determine just how culpable Marius and Sulla were for the chaos that engulfed the Roman Republic The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. [18] Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Romes comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. Sulla's arrival in Brundisium induced defections from the Senate in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus, who had already fled from the Cinnan regime, raised an army in Spain, and departed for Africa to join with Metellus Pius (who also joined the Sullans), joined Sulla even before his landing in Italy. After another attempt to relieve Praeneste failed, Carbo lost his nerve and attempted to retreat to Africa; his lieutenants attempted again to relieve Praeneste but after that again failed, marched on Rome to force Sulla from his well-defended positions. He was, however, defeated. Primary sources are documents, images, relics, or other works that provide firsthand details of a historical or scientific event. [40] His prospects for advancement under Marius stalled, however, Sulla started to complain "most unfairly" that Marius was withholding opportunities from him. Sulla was born in a very turbulent era of Rome's history, which has often been described as the beginning of the fall of the Roman Republic.The political climate was marked by civil discord and rampant political violence where voting in the Assembly was . to A.D. 68 (1959; 2d ed. National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). [113] The extra time spent in Asia, moreover, equipped him with forces and money later put to good use in Italy. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. In a typical year, the Graduate Acting Department will personally audition more than 800 students in order to select an ensemble of 16 actors. An example of the extent of his charming side was that his soldiers would sing a ditty about Sulla's one testicle, although without truth, to which he allowed as being "fond of a jest. The Internet Modern History Sourcebook is one of series of history primary sourcebooks. [125], Carbo, who had suffered defeats by Metellus Pius and Pompey, attempted to redeploy so to relieve his co-consul Marius at Praeneste. [137][15] In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. This may have been related to Sulla's campaign for the consulship. For example: scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, biographies, or textbooks. [76] The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). Lucius Cornelius Sulla I. Each actor's story is unique and each brings something important to the ensemble. He might have been disinherited, though it was "more likely" that his father simply had nothing to bequeath. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius, which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola. Capturing the city, Sulla had it destroyed. Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. [139][140], Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. Reason #4: studying primary sources helps students become better citizens. Updated on June 22, 2022 Students. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of the ideal characteristics of a ruler. The allies in central and southern Italy had fought side by side with Rome in several wars and had grown restive under Roman autocratic rule, wanting instead Roman citizenship and the privileges it conferred. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. [42], Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. Book Sources: Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery March (1965) A selection of books/e-books available in Trible Library. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). [45][46], While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia. [17], One story, "as false as it is charming", relates that when Sulla was a baby, his nurse was carrying him around the streets, until a strange woman walked up to her and said, "Puer tibi et reipublicae tuae felix", which can be translated as, "The boy will be a source of luck to you and your state". [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. [17] After his father's death, around the time Sulla reached adulthood, Sulla found himself impoverished. be determined. By the end of the war, the SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. Wikipedia entry + Cornelius , Epaphroditus , Sylla 138/31 The birth of L.Sulla. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. He also divorced his then-wife Cloelia and married Metella, widow of the recently-deceased Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. The two primary sources for this paper are Sallust's Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. [89] After Octavius induced the senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. [64], Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. [86] He then left Italy with his troops without delay, ignoring legal summons and taking over command from a legate in Macedonia. Sulla is generally seen as having set the precedent for Caesar's march on Rome and dictatorship. [59] Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar. There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. Tweet. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. [72] Sulpicius' attempts to push through the Italian legislation again brought him into violent urban conflict, although he "offered nothing to the urban plebs so it continued to resist him". [127] Sulla himself was defeated and forced to flee into his camp, but his lieutenant Crassus on the right wing won the battle in the night. [49] At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. Textbook passages discussing specific concepts, events, and experiments.