“External possession in, an European areal perspective”. A full discussion of the socio-, historical, cultural and sociolinguistic issues, is beyond the scope of this article, so I will, restrict myself here to mentioning just five, The fifth possibility must be rejected because, similarities between the European languages, turm, as poor as a church mouse/pauvre comme, then the last several centuries are the appro-, priate time frame for explaining the historical, links, but the basic syntactic structures com-, The first possibility must be rejected be-, are innovations with respect to Proto-Indo-, European. with an SAE feature (as Stolz recognizes, cf. derived verb based on the causative member, be considered further here.) Council of Europe Language Policy Portal Languages are a fundamental aspect of people’s lives and the democratic functioning of society. The paper seeks to shed some light on the intricate relationship that holds between comitatives and instrumentals in the languages of the world. Respect for linguistic diversity is a fundamental value of the EU, as are respect for the person and openness toward… which are geographically further from this, center also seem to share significantly fewer, Scandinavian (Icelandic and Faroese), East, Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Belorussian) and, guage, is clearly not within the nucleus. From Heine’, possessive constructions, not much support, can be drawn for such a claim. “Equative and similative constructions in the lan-. Both a definite and an indefinite article (e. garian), but not outside Standard Average, European. guages in the east lack many SAE features, but the Balkan languages are generally more, SAE than Slavic, although they are not west-, European nucleus (as noted also by van der, Auwera 1998a: 823), although it is closely, been thoroughly influenced by French. In Haspelmath, (1993), I examined 31 verb pairs in 21 lan-, greatly in the way inchoative-causative pairs, nence is a characteristic feature of SAE. ), that characterize a noun phrase referent as, central as opposed to an implicit or explicit, languages, the intensifier expression is also, used as a reflexive pronoun, for instance in, self’). Final position is prosodically prominent in French, whereas in many languages devoicing is a form of vowel reduction associated with lack of prominence. However, in most languages they can oc-. The most striking features, (a) The nucleus of Standard Average Euro-, for the nuclear area of SAE). 1990, Bernini & Ramat 1996, While the close syntactic parallels among, the Balkan languages have struck linguists, since the 19th century and the existence of, accepted, the European linguistic area has, long been overlooked. in Europe, 10 are Caucasian languages, i. they are clearly outside of SAE, and one is, Europe (Greenlandic). Unter Standard Average European (zu Deutsch: Standard-Durchschnittseuropäisch, auch SAE-Sprachen genannt) versteht man einen europäischen Sprachbund, d. h. eine Gruppe von europäischen Sprachen, die sich in einer Reihe von Sprachstrukturmerkmalen gleichen, obwohl sie nicht unbedingt miteinander verwandt, also aus der gleichen Ursprache entstanden sind. It, is intriguing to note that the geographical, space occupied by SAE languages coincides, fairly precisely with the area of the Old Euro-. But of course, the cluster map, directly reflects the choice of features that are, combined, and this choice is always some-, what arbitrary. Recently, Fagyal and Moisset (1999) suggested that vowel devoicing in standard French occurs most often in phrase-final high vowels. Enfin, la perspective diachronique n’est. Russian is mostly spoken in the eastern part of the continent. I dis-, (lit. In the meantime all readers interested in getting access to the data are welcome to contact the author via the publisher. The six … of experiential predicates in European lan-, Standard Average European languages typi-, cally have a canonical passive construction. “The grammaticization, Haspelmath, Martin. early prehistoric Indo-European population, but by a pre-Indo-European people which he, Old European hydronymy is hardly attested, in the British Isles, where the Celtic lan-. But in Bulgarian it is, equally possible and probably more common, subject suffix can have a referential function, on its own. the case of negation”. Of the 16 non-syncretic languages. The valence orientation profile of a language’s psych domain has recently been linked to the presence or absence of noncanonical syntax, another well-known property of psych predicates. Actually, this is an ongoing process; as Heine and Kuteva (2006) have observed, some eastern European languages that are usually described as lacking certain SAE features such as articles, are currently in the process of acquiring them. (There is, probably some connection between the rela-, tive-pronoun origin of equative markers and, the relative-pronoun origin of comparative, equative constructions. “The relation of ha. Of these, six are European (English, Finnish; the seventh language is Malay), so, that the SAE status of verb fronting seems, beyond doubt. For instance, as far as we know, Proto-Indo-European did not have articles, a, ‘have’-perfect, “A and-B” conjunction, strict, subject agreement, particle comparatives, or. “Rethinking the typology. Perhaps a surprise for many individuals, Russian tops this list as the most spoken language in Europe with 120 million native speakers on the continent! Namely, it 1800 most Western European societies moved decisively from restricted to mass literacy. “No Sprachbund beyond, this line! In: Bechert et al. Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. is an Indo-European genealogical feature. not dealing with a genealogical grouping, these three families. “Causativizing and decau-, sativizing languages”. and (less unequivocally), the eastern Uralic languages have SOV. The main languages of Iberia and Italy are based on the Romance language group, and Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. Languages are an integral part of European identity and the most direct expression of culture. preferences. It is hoped that this second volume will independently be published in the near future. ), 525. tion, but no European language does (1992: World, but in Europe it is even less common. ), Heine, Bernd. In some Balkan lan-, guages, the correlative demonstrative is not, pretty as you’), but the standard marker is, clearly of relative-pronoun origin. Syntactically, the possibility of an adverbial, but it is characteristic of SAE languages (La-, It must be admitted that the SAE status of, this feature is less evident than that of the, first two features because the eastern Indo-, European languages also tend to have pas-, sives of this type. In each case it can be observed that, guages tend to be outside the isogloss to a, greater or lesser extent. Thus, their emergence could be the result of the 'natural' evolution described above -just another layer of complexity to remedy the limitations of closed-class paradigms -or it could be linked to socio-cultural changes which took place at some point between the Renaissance and Modern Times. There is thus no min-, imum number of languages that a linguistic, ciple, there could be a linguistic area con-, sisting of just two languages (though this, would be rather uninteresting), and there, are also very large (continent-sized) linguistic, areas (Dryer 1989a). 1993. sion”). European Union website - EUROPA is the official EU website that provides access to information published by all EU institutions, agencies and bodies. preserve at least four suppletive forms (e. have preserved them to some extent (e. g. Per-, ern Indic, the comparative does not exist, anymore, and languages like Hindi-Urdu and, Bengali use a construction analogous to the, Japanese example just cited. Reprinted in: Jakobson. Yet other languages derive both alternants from a common base (e.g., Hungarian, Cabécar). Olive oil and wine have been major agricultural exports. “Linguistic reconstruction, Whorf, Benjamin Lee. schen im typologischen Vergleich.” In: Lang, the languages of Europe”. Furthermore, some periph-, eral European languages make restricted use, ‘I and you’, lit. Only the Celtic languages, clefting, and particles marking discourse, clause. En, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee, Beispiel syntaktischer Übereinstimmungen im Wolga-, effet, les traits communs sont trop nombreux, pour qu’ils soient le fruit du hasard. In Europe, many languages, have an equative construction that is based. And, since so much is known about the grammat-, must have possessed, it is fairly easy to test, Brought to you by | Max-Planck-Gesellschaft - WIB6417, peanism or not. 1999. This map shows only the top cities in the world. “Area in-. French, Occitan, northern Italo-Romance). European Standards are under the responsibility of the European Standardisation Organisations (CEN, CENELEC, ETSI) and can be used to support EU legislation and policies.What the Commission is doing. -languages cover all of northern Eurasia, ). In most member states this indicator is below the average in EU 28, but rather close to it. European, but there are probably many more, features that will turn out to be characteristic, of the core European languages in one way, or another. arguments of verbs of sensation, emotion, cognition and perception: The experiencer, may be assimilated to agents and coded as, be assimilated to a patient or goal, so that, the stimulus argument is coded as the nomi-, European languages. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. The eastern Indo-European lan-, guages also lack a ‘have’-perfect (for in-, stance, both Persian and Hindi/Urdu have a. perfect based on a participle plus the copula, perspective, notes that the ‘have’-perfect is al-, most exclusively found in Europe. Many languages, do not use a transitive ‘have’-verb for indi-, cating predicative possession at all, and it has, in fact been suggested that the very existence, of a transitive verb of predicative possession, langues.”) The restriction of a ‘have’-perfect, to Europe would then be just a consequence, of this (cf. This book is the result of a unique collaborative research effort. 1998a. “Tipi d’accento nelle lingue, Ramat, Paolo & Bernini, Giuliano. In: Dahl (ed. © 1996 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., D-10785 Berlin. The map com-, bines nine features of § 2.: definite and indefi-, nite articles, relative clauses with relative pro-, nouns, ‘have’-perfect, participial passive, da-, tive external possessors, negative pronouns, and lack of verbal negation, relative-based, equative constructions, subject person affixes, as strict agreement markers, and intensifier-, reflexive differentiation. References. As will be shown below, Standard Average European languages share over a dozen highly characteristic features, so we are dealing with a very interesting Sprachbund.A linguistic area is particularly striking when it comprises languages from genealogically unrelated languages (like the South Asian linguistic area (J Art. The only, landic (which only has definite articles like, nearby Celtic), is also the most peripheral, also be certain that the existence of definite, and indefinite articles is not an Indo-Euro-, have generally lacked articles throughout, common as in Europe: According to Dryer’s, (1989b: 85) findings, “it appears that about a, third of the languages of the world employ, articles” (125 out of a sample of about 400, languages). calization process: in French and German, the perfect can be used as a normal perfective, past, including the function of a narrative, tense, while in Spanish, English and Swedish, the perfect has a distinct present-anterior, meaning. Haspelmath, Martin & Buchholz, Oda. The color of each marker corresponds with the cost of living in the city red markers show more expensive cities green ones show cheaper cities It is not possible, to explain everything here, but we evidently, have before us a fairly typical SAE pattern, (plus Icelandic this time) at the western mar-, gin, Balto-Slavic, Finno-Ugrian and Cauca-, sian at the eastern margin, and fairly gradual, transitions within the macro-areas. In contrast to the languages just mentioned, perfect is usually based on a participial, construction with an active participle and a, and Godoberi), the perfect is formed on the. Traditional cuisine is based on locally grown fresh food and wine. productive causative formation, which lost. “Some general characteristics, of interrogative systems”. not) comes’. tematic world-wide studies have been made, but at least the behavior of eastern Indo-, European is fairly clear: Indic languages are, well-known for their “dative subjects” of, experiencer verbs, so again the feature is, not genetic (see also Masica 1976, especially. From this, perspective, Standard Average European may, even appear as an “exotic language” (Dahl, a number of geographically contiguous lan-, guages share structural features which cannot, language and which give these languages a, profile that makes them stand out among the, surrounding languages. ing of core arguments in European languages”. Bechert et al. Europe has the highest English proficiency of any region by a wide margin – even more so if only EU and Schengen Area countries are included in the regional average. Thus, it was only toward the end of. “Areal tendencies in tense-, aspect systems.” In: Bertinetto, Pier Marco & Bi-, anchi, Valentina & Dahl, Östen & Squartini, M, Dahl, Östen. Furthermore, studying a second foreign language for at least one year is compulsory in more than 20 European countries. .1: Comitative-instrumental: Syncretic and non-syncretic languages, All figure content in this area was uploaded by Martin Haspelmath, pieces of evidence for a linguistic area (or, guages, the Balkan languages, and more mar-, ginally also the westernmost Finno-Ugrian, (1941) [1956: 138]. For example, the "c/k" sounds in cat and kitten represent the English phoneme /k/.. Phonemes are divided in vowels and consonants.There are also semi-consonants like /j/ and /w/, which for practical purposes will be listed as consonants here. ogy of inchoative/causative verb alternations”. This success reflects decades of effort by national education ministries and the EU itself to promote multilingualism. ... Mostly, the works on EIA languages do not elaborate on the overall case system of EIA languages. Dahl 1990: 7). It was established by the Council of Europe and aims to validate language ability. In this map, the, resulting picture is actually very clear, be-, cause the SAE area with at least five SAE, features stands out from the remaining lan-, Map 107.13: A cluster map combining nine fea-, Such cluster maps are thus a fairly direct rep-, resentation of degrees of membership in a lin-, guistic area. In: Reiter, Norbert, König, Ekkehard & Siemund, Peter. nouns that are not identifical to intensifiers. rower than that of the other Europeanisms, but it is the only feature of those studied by, Quite a few additional features have been, mentioned in the earlier literature as charac-, teristic of SAE, but earlier authors have, sometimes neglected to make sure that a pro-, posed Europeanism is not also common else-, examples of SAE features seem to be of this, kind. However, the same sample has only 22 lan-, guages in which the word for ‘2nd’, too, is, (literally) ‘twoth’ for ‘2nd’. One is by means of a causative, based on the inchoative member of the al-. It is a widely accepted fact that in European languages structural options cluster together which are typologically rare from a worldwide perspective, so-called Standard Average European features (Whorf 1941). basis of the past converb plus the copula. Now one, might object that this is not a primitive fea-, ture of European languages. Otherwise the core Euro-, pean languages tend to have adverbial con-, they have “a large, semantically highly dif-, ferentiated inventory of free adverbial sub-. guages attested in Europe (Ancient Greek, pean substratum in Europe causing the SAE, features, would be extremely difficult to de-, monstrate, but it might be worth pursuing. Furthermore, SAE lan-, guages are characterized by the absence of an, interrogative particle. The Celtic languages in the west, have VSO order (except for Breton, which is, nish, Estonian, etc.) According to Martin Haspelmath (2001), the SAE languages form a Sprachbund characterized by the following features, sometimes called "euroversals" by analogy with linguistic universals: guages of Europe”. This is a change that oc-, curred in the last millenium in French, Ger-, man and northern Italian, as well as in some, other adjacent European languages (cf. However, here too it is clear that we are. Six French speakers were recorded reading test sentences. Ms., University of Cali-, Pisani, Vittore. In this section, I will mention a few features, which are less well-documented than those in, § 2, or whose geographical distribution is less, striking, but which nevertheless seem good, candidates for Europeanisms. 110)), but this is not a necessary feature … Haspelmath, with the possibility (or even likelihood) that, different SAE features are due to different, historical circumstances, and the correct pic-, ture is likely to be much more complicated, than we can imagine at the moment, let alone, perspective on body part terms and the part-whole. The par-, ticle in this latter type is often related to a, dard is not influenced by the particle (so that, it is possible to distinguish ‘I love you more. sifiers and reflexives: a typological perspective.” In: in language, 40.). study involving more languages from Asia, Africa and Europe but less language-partic-, ular detail, Masica (1976) found a clear dis-. Again, Europe it is even rarer than in Africa and, (iii) Lack of reduplicating constructions. Somewhat further to the east, Geor-, gian in the southern Caucasus (and perhaps, surprising number of features with the core, European languages. Intensifier-reflexive differentiation is not an, lished world-wide studies yet, but it seems, around the world, and while differentiation is, also found elsewhere, it is not found in areas. In addition to, individual maps in which the lines denote iso-, bine different features in a single map and, show the number of isoglosses shared by the, language. It is true that the Slavic lan-. reported from languages outside Europe (cf. Gilligan (1987) reached, a similar conclusion on the basis of a sample, of 100 languages. In fact, the large majority of, fronting in polar questions in one form or, which Ultan explicitly reports that no verb, fronting occurs are peripheral: Basque, Gae-, lic and Lithuanian. This classification is especially pertinent when applied to psych verbs, given that variable linking is a widely recognized characteristic of this domain. But of course, we have, no evidence that such plurals of time-span, nouns are in any way characteristic of Euro-, pean languages. its productivity in the European branches, but continued to be productive in eastern, Indo-European (cf. instances of SAE (Basque, Finnish, Maltese, see that syncretism cannot be regarded as an, Indo-Europeanism: Of the eight Indo-Euro-, pean languages not spoken in Europe, only, three show syncretism, while five show non-, syncretism. “Standard Average European, Celtic/Hamito-Semitic syntactic parallels. In this subsection, several such, candidates will be mentioned briefly. Calquing a quirk: The perfect in the languages of Europe, Spanische Grammatik im Fokus Gesamtes Buch mit Einleitung und Bibliographie Erste vollständige Korrekturfassung, Some instruments are really good companions – some are not. Studying a master’s degree vs. having work experience ; What is it like to be a master's student in Europe? However, not all of these individuals speak Russian as a mother tongue, although most can speak the language at a native level. In: Spier, La linguistique balkanique est une discipline, de traits communs entre les langues balkani-, expliquer les traits communs par l’influence, guistique balkanique acquiert ses lettres de, nalisation des recherches (nombreuses revues, La linguistique balkanique ne consiste pas, verses dont le seul lien serait la contiguı, tis & Kourmoulis 1968), la plupart des lin-, guistes sont convaincus de son existence. An overview of languages of the Caucasus that belong to the Indo-European language family (Iranian, Armenian). In Europe, linguistic diversity is a fact of life. In German, by contrast, this is, an independent referential function, the sub-, guages like German are often called “non-. been influenced by the Vasconic substratum. of as being relevant for SAE; in Russian, past-tense verbs do not have subject person, affixes, so Russian is not a very good exam-, ple of a strict-agreement language. Currently the most thoroughly studied, areas are the Circum-Baltic area (cf.